Indication of depth in the drawing - how width is indicated in construction

Rules for marking steel pipes, how to read the designations

A competent specialist, based on the numbers printed on the surface of the pipe product, can name the main parameters of the pipes, material of manufacture, strength characteristics, as well as the manufacturer. Special purpose steel pipes have markings that differ slightly from the standard designations.

The following are called special purpose products:

Alloy steel pipe products.
Stainless steel pipes.
Pipes for drilling.
Pipe elements of main pipelines.
Pipes for boiler rooms.

What can be used for marking?

For marking the following can be used:

Indelible paint.
Electrographs.
Electric inkjet printing devices.
Branding.

No data is applied to some types of pipe products, and for those that must have markings, the marking method is selected depending on the grade and main parameters of the pipe.

Standard marking of steel pipes

All necessary data is applied to the pipes according to a certain standard.

Location of symbols

Manual marking of a steel pipe is printed at a certain distance from the end of the product: no less than 2 cm and no further than 50 cm. With mechanized marking, this value increases and is 0.1 m and 1.5 m.

Symbol size

The letter and numerical designations of the pipe must have a certain size, which is also regulated by a certain regulatory document. Signs must have a height of no less than 0.5 cm and no more than 3 cm, and a width from 0.3 cm to 1.2 cm. The size of the signs is determined in accordance with the parameters of the pipe.

Division into classes

Conventionally, pipe products are divided into the following classes:

Class 1 pipes can be used for gaseous and liquid media in irrigation systems. In addition, it is possible to manufacture fencing structures or supports from such products.
Class 2 pipes can be used in pipelines operating at low and high pressure, transporting oil and petroleum products, gas or water.
Class 3 pipes are suitable for work at high temperatures.
Class 4 includes thick-walled drill pipes that can resist strong torsion.
Class 5 pipes are used in the construction of carriages, cars, overhead cranes, drilling rigs and some furniture structures.
Class 6 pipes are used in the engineering industry as blanks from which bearings, cylinders, pumps and receivers are produced.

Units of length edit edit code

Metric system edit edit code

The metric system is considered the most convenient of all those invented because of its simplicity. The metric system is based on the unit of measurement meter. All other units of measurement are multiples of powers of ten from a meter (for example, a kilometer is 10³ meters, etc.), which makes calculations easier. Until 1960, the meter had a special standard, now stored at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, located in the city of Sèvres (a suburb of Paris, France). Today, by definition, a meter is equal to the distance that light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second.

British American system edit edit code

The original English units of length were the mile, yard, foot and inch. The mile came to England from Ancient Rome, where it was defined as a thousand double steps of an armed Roman soldier

Old Russian system edit edit code

In Ancient Rus', the measure of length, weight, etc. was a person. This is indicated by the names of length measures: cubit (distance from the end of the extended middle finger of the hand or clenched fist to the elbow bend), span (distance between the extended thumb and index finger), fathom (distance from the end of the fingers of one hand to the end of the fingers of the other) and others [1].

In particular, the arshin was associated with the length of a human step. However, the need to unify measurement systems with the British one in connection with the development of international trade required the introduction of the so-called “state yardstick” during the time of Peter I. It was a measuring ruler with metal tips bearing the state mark. The official arshin was equal to 28 English inches and divided into 16 vershok. [2]

Full list 1 bid 1 bid

the number of indexes of the line follows the dimensional circle of the car with signs

Perimeter and area

Unlike all the quantities listed above, the word “perimeter” does not come from Latin or English, but from Greek. It is derived from “περιμετρέο” (“to measure the circumference”). And today this term has retained its meaning (the total length of the boundaries of the figure). Subsequently, the word entered the English language (“perimeter”) and was fixed in the SI system in the form of an abbreviation with the letter “P”.

Area is a quantity that shows the quantitative characteristics of a geometric figure that has two dimensions (length and width). Unlike everything listed earlier, it is measured in square meters (as well as in submultiples and multiples thereof). As for the letter designation of the area, it differs in different areas. For example, in mathematics this is the Latin letter “S”, familiar to everyone since childhood. Why this is so - no information.

As the thickness is indicated in the drawing

For registration of design documents, basic letter designations are provided that reflect the following conventional values:

Center-to-center distance
Width
Diameter
Height, depth
Length
Radius
Thickness (sheets, walls, ribs, etc.)
Step
Angles

It is recommended to use capital letters to indicate overall and total dimensions.

If the same letters are used in the same document for different quantities, numerical or alphabetic indices are used, for example:

Based on the images of an object in the drawing, one can judge its size and the size of its individual parts. The basis for this are dimensional numbers, regardless of what scale and with what accuracy

images are completed. The rules for applying dimensions on drawings are established by GOST 2.307-68.

Dimensions in the drawing are indicated by dimensional numbers, dimension and extension lines. Dimensional numbers on drawings are usually indicated in millimeters without indicating units of measurement. In cases where it is necessary to use other length units, they are shown after the dimension number.

Dimensional numbers are applied above the dimension line, possibly closer to its middle. The gap between the size number and the size line should be about 1.0 mm. The height of the dimensional numbers is taken to be at least 3.5 mm (Fig. 7).

The dimension line is drawn parallel to the segment whose size is applied above it. It is carried out between extension lines drawn perpendicular to the dimensional ones. It is allowed to draw dimension lines directly to the lines of the visible contour, axial and center. In some cases, the dimension line may not be drawn perpendicular to the extension (Fig. 8).

Dimension lines are limited by arrows (Fig. 9). In some cases, they are not carried out completely, but with the arrow broken on one side (Fig. 10). The size of the arrow is chosen based on the thickness of the solid thick main line adopted in the drawing. Within one drawing, the size of the arrows should be the same as possible.

It is not recommended to use contour, axial, center and extension lines as dimension lines.

If the length of the dimension line is small to accommodate the arrows, then the dimension line is extended beyond the extension lines, and the dimensions are applied as shown in Fig. eleven.

Extension lines are drawn from the boundaries of measurements; they are auxiliary and serve to place dimension lines between them. If possible, extension lines should be placed outside the image contour, perpendicular to a straight line segment, the size of which must be specified. The extension lines should extend beyond the ends of the arrows of the dimension lines by 1.5 mm (Fig. 12).

The minimum distance from the dimension line to a line parallel to it should be 10 mm, and between parallel dimension lines - 7 mm.

Angular dimensions in drawings are indicated in degrees, minutes and seconds, indicating units of measurement. The size of the angle is applied above the dimension line, which is drawn in the form of an arc with the center at its apex. In this case, extension lines are drawn radially (Fig. 13).

With different inclinations of dimension lines, the dimensional numbers of linear dimensions are arranged as shown in Fig. 14, a, and the angular dimensions are as shown in Fig. 14, b.

If the dimension line is located in an area that is shaded in the drawing, dimension numbers are applied on the shelves of leader lines (Fig. 15).

If there is not enough space above the dimension line to write the dimension number or this space is occupied by other image elements and

It is impossible to enter a dimensional number into it; the dimensional number is applied according to one of the options shown in Fig. 16.

In order to simplify a number of images and create ease of reading of the drawing, the standard provides for the use of symbols in the form of letters of the Latin alphabet and graphic signs that are placed in front of the dimensional numbers. Used in drawings

signs and letters to indicate diameter and radius, arc and square length, slope and taper, sphere, thickness and length of the part.

The sign 0 is applied before the diameter size number (Fig. 17). Moreover, there are no gaps between the sign and the number. For circles of small diameter, the arrow dimension lines and the dimension itself are drawn according to one of the options shown in Fig. 18.

The dimensional number of the arc radius is always preceded by a sign in the form of a capital Latin letter R.
In this case, the dimension line is drawn towards the center of the arc and is limited to only one arrow, resting on the arc or its extension (Fig. 19). If the radius in the drawing is less than 6 mm, it is recommended to place the arrow

lay on the outside of the arc. If it is necessary to specify the position of the center of the arc, it is marked by the intersection of center or extension lines (Fig. 20). In cases where the drawing shows an arc of large radius, for which the center need not be marked, the dimension line is cut off without reaching the center (Fig. 21).

If in this case the center needs to be marked, it is allowed to bring it closer to the arc (Fig. 22). The dimension line in this case is shown with a 90° bend, and both sections of the dimension line are drawn parallel. Dimension lines that extend from the same center and are intended to indicate dimensional arcs should not be placed on the same straight line.

It is recommended to use radii to denote arcs up to 180°; arcs whose magnitude is more than 180° are designated by diameter.

The arc sign is applied above the dimension number (Fig. 23). The length of the arc is specified in linear units, and the dimension number indicating the arc is plotted above the dimension line in accordance with the usual requirements.

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To set the dimensions of a square, use the corresponding sign D, the height of which is equal to 7/10 of the height of the dimension number (Fig. 24, a).

If the square is positioned differently, the dimensions of its sides are indicated (Fig. 24,
b).
It should be noted that the square sign is applied only on the image on which it is projected into a line.

The surface conicity sign is applied on the shelf of a leader line located parallel to the cone axis or on the cone axis (Fig. 25, a).

The cone sign is positioned so that its acute angle is directed towards the apex of the cone.

The amount of taper is determined by the ratio of the difference in diameters of two cross sections of the cone to the distance between these sections, i.e. k

=
D
-
dll,
where
D
is the diameter of the large section;
d
—diameter of the smaller section; / is the distance between sections.

Taper is indicated as a simple fractional number (Fig. 25, b).

The straight slope sign is indicated on the shelf of the leader line. Slope i
represents the tangent of the angle between a given line and a horizontal or vertical line (Fig. 26, a). The slope sign is located

so that its acute angle is directed towards the slope of the straight line (Fig. 26, b).

The slope, like the taper, is specified in the drawing as a simple fraction, as a percentage or in ppm.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kv5C8zt3xEw

To designate a sphere in a drawing, use the sign of diameter or radius. In cases where it is difficult to distinguish a sphere from other surfaces in a drawing, the word “Sphere” may be added before the sign of the radius or diameter. The inscription on the drawing is made according to the type “Sphere diameter 17” or “Sphere R

10" (Fig. 27).

Simple flat parts are depicted in a single projection. In these cases, its thickness is denoted by the lowercase letter s

and the inscription on the drawing is made according to type
s2
and is located on the shelf of the leader line (Fig. 28, a).
The length of the object is indicated by the letter / (Fig. 28, b).
Chamfers in the drawings are applied in two linear dimensions (Fig. 29, a)

or one linear and one angular (Fig. 29,
b).
In the event that
the angle of inclination of the cone generatrix is 45°, a simplified chamfer designation is used when the dimension line is drawn parallel to the axis of the cone, and the inscription is made as “2 x 45” (Fig. 29, c).
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1. What classification groups of ESKD standards exist?

2. How many sheets of A4 format are contained in A1 format?

3. What are the rules for placing the title block on the format?

4. What is the content of the title block?

5. What scale do you know?

6. How are scales designated?

7. What is the thickness of center, center, extension and dimension lines?

8. What lines are used to outline the outline?

9. What determines font size?

10. How is the height of lowercase letters determined?

11. What signs are used when applying dimensions?

12. At what distance from each other and from the contour line are the dimension lines drawn?

13. When is the diameter sign 0, and when is the radius sign R?

14. Where on the drawing is the size of the number applied relative to the dimension line?

15. How does the scale of the image affect the size of the dimensions applied in the drawing?

16. What is a slope, as is it indicated on the drawing?

17. What is taper, how is it indicated in the drawing?

18. How are conical chamfers indicated in the drawing?

3.1. Main provisions of the standard

The basis for determining the size of the product and its elements are the dimensional numbers printed on the drawing. Dimensions are always true, regardless of the scale and with what accuracy the image is made. Dimensions must be assigned and applied so that they can be used to produce a part without resorting to calculations.

There should be a minimum number of sizes, but sufficient for the manufacture and control of the product. The absence of at least one of the dimensions makes the drawing practically unusable. Dimensions must be marked in such a way that no ambiguities or questions arise when reading them. It should be remembered that the drawing is read in the absence of the author.

According to GOST 2.307-2011 - “Applying dimensions and maximum deviations”, linear dimensions in the drawing are given in millimeters, without indicating the unit of measurement. Angular dimensions are indicated in degrees, minutes, seconds with the designation of the unit of measurement. Each dimension is indicated on the drawing, in the main inscription, only once; it is unacceptable to repeat it.

When indicating the dimensions of straight segments, dimension lines are drawn parallel to these segments at a distance of at least 10 mm from the contour line and 7 mm from each other, and extension lines are drawn perpendicular to the dimension lines.

Extension lines should extend beyond the ends of the arrows of the dimension line by 1...5 mm. The arrow of the dimension line must have a length of at least 2.5 mm and an apex angle of about 20° (Figure 3.1).

The dimensions and shape of the arrows must be the same throughout the drawing.

3.2. Applying dimensions

In the drawings of parts, dimensions are indicated based on the manufacturing technology of the part and the surfaces on which the part comes into contact with other parts of the assembly unit.

This affects the choice of design base.

Based is the process of giving the workpiece the required position relative to the selected coordinate system.

General rules for drawing up drawings of metal structures

Marking of structural elements .
Elements of metal structures are indicated in the drawings with marks. For marking elements of the main types of metal structures, the letter designations given in table are proposed. 12.3.1. Non-standard products, in the design of which there are differences that do not affect their main characteristics, are designated by the same brands as the products in the basic design, but with the addition of indices (for example, B1a, B16).

Elements of the same cross-section are designated by the same brand. The same grade is assigned to these elements even if they have different lengths, but the design forces are close in value. Standard products (structural elements) are designated by marks taken from the relevant standards, drawings of standard products and catalogs.

If elements have different cross-sections, they are assigned different brands.

The symbols of the brands of the main elements of metal structures are made up of capital letters (determining the type, structure) and numbers (the serial number of the element).

The designation of the serial number is accepted for each type of element separately, for example, F1, F2 or B1, B2, BZ.

Small structural elements, connections, beams of small areas, wall frame crossbars are marked within the same diagram in lowercase letters. If the letters of the alphabet are not enough for marking, it is continued with double letters or combinations of letters and numbers. If elements with the same marks are continuously repeated along the entire length of the plan or section, it is allowed to indicate their markings only in the extreme sections and at expansion joints.

The scale of the drawing is chosen depending on the complexity of the design and the structure as a whole, so that the compactness of the image, ease of use of the drawing and obtaining clear copies with modern methods of reproduction of drawings are ensured.

When making drawings of elements (braces, racks, truss chords, etc.) having a length significantly greater than the transverse dimensions, it is allowed to depict these elements in the transverse direction on a larger scale (usually twice as large).

Lines . When schematically depicting metal structures in one line and for drawing a visible contour in detailed images, the use of a solid main line is allowed. When schematically and semi-schematically depicting the contours of structures, elements made of other materials are depicted with a thinner solid line.

The arrangement of types of elements of metal structures is somewhat different from the arrangement of types of wooden and reinforced concrete structures. Views on drawings of metal structures are usually arranged as follows (Fig. 12.3.1). The top view in the projection connection is above the main view, the bottom view is below the main view, the right view is to the right of the main view, the left view is to the left of the main view. Above each view (except for the main one) an inscription of type “A” is made, and the direction of view is indicated by an arrow indicated by the corresponding letter. This arrangement of individual images (views) is obtained by projection using the third angle method (method A).

If you need to show some part of the structure, then on the main or some other view the direction of view can be shown as a section or section (with two open strokes with arrows), and the image itself can be accompanied by the inscription: 1-1 or 2-2, etc. .p., and the image can be located anywhere on the sheet. Metal structures in the drawings can be depicted schematically, simplified and in detail (Fig. 12.3.2, a-c). If it is necessary to show any part or assembly of a structure on a larger scale with a sufficient degree of detail, the enlarged image is placed next to the simplified drawing.

When depicting a structure in detail, all its visible parts and connections located in the immediate vicinity of the observer are drawn, and the invisible parts are drawn only those that are located close to the visible ones. Invisible elements separated from visible ones by an air gap are not shown in the drawing. To depict invisible parts of elements as visible, make a gap in the material, as in Fig. 12.3.2, c, which shows an unequal angle, invisible from above, welded to the vertical wall of the beam.

Metal structures made from rolled profiles can be shown in drawings without rounding the corners.

Sections, sections . The contours of structural elements in the images of sections and sections are not hatched. In drawings whose scale is smaller than 1:20, cross-sectional images of structural elements may be shown in one line. Holes, rivets and bolts in views and sections parallel to their axes can be represented by axial lines.

Slopes, slopes. Bevels in drawings of structural elements are indicated by linear dimensions (Fig. 12.3.3a) or using a right triangle, the hypotenuse of which coincides with the edge of the image or extension line (Fig. 12.3.3b). The size of the horizontal or vertical legs is the absolute or relative value of their length. The slope of an element of metal structures (for example, braces of a truss) is also indicated by a triangle, but it is placed in close proximity to it or on the continuation of the center line (Fig. 12.3.4).

Marking. If necessary, elements of metal structures are marked by placing the mark on the shelves (Fig. 12.3.5, a).

However, industry standards allow marking to be done in circles with a diameter of 5-7 mm. A wavy line runs from the element to be marked to the circle (Fig. 12.3.5, b).

How many meters is the car wide?

Car dimensions range in length from 3800 to 4200 mm for hatchbacks and from 4200 to 4500 mm for sedans and liftbacks; width

— 1,5—1,7
m
.

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The optimal size of stair steps in the house

When calculating the size of the steps to the second floor, you need to know some nuances:

Riser size 15-18 cm.
Tread – 30 cm.
Comfortable step length is from a meter, preferably 120 cm.

The number of steps themselves is not too difficult to calculate. To do this, you need to know such a parameter as the floor height. The accuracy must be absolute, otherwise the steps will differ in size. Standards recommend setting the height of the steps to 15 cm, but it may vary slightly.

Next, you need to divide the resulting floor height in centimeters by the height of the steps, and then subtract one, since the last step will come out on its own.

And it is necessary to take into account the clearance, that is, the height from the step to the upper barrier. This is at least two meters - otherwise you will have to constantly put bandages on your head: there will be bruises. It is recommended to entrust drawings and calculations to specialists - without the necessary skills, there is a possibility of fatal errors. It is very important to make long and complete preparations to avoid various difficulties.

Radius and diameter

In addition to the parameters discussed, when drawing up drawings you have to deal with others.

For example, when working with circles, it becomes necessary to determine their radius. This is the name of the segment that connects two points. The first of them is the center. The second is located directly on the circle itself. In Latin this word looks like "radius". Hence the generally accepted abbreviation: lowercase or capital “R”/“r”.

When drawing circles, in addition to the radius, you often have to deal with a phenomenon close to it - diameter. It is also a line segment connecting two points on a circle. In this case, it necessarily passes through the center.

Numerically, the diameter is equal to two radii. In English this word is written like this: “diameter”. Hence the abbreviation - large or small Latin letter “D” / “d”. Often the diameter in the drawings is indicated using a crossed out circle - “Ø”.

Although this is a common abbreviation, it is worth keeping in mind that GOST provides for the use of only the Latin “D” / “d”.

Other common abbreviations

The designations for height, width, length, thickness, radius, and diameter are the most commonly used when drawing up drawings. However, there are other quantities that are also often present in them. For example, lowercase "t". In physics, this means “temperature”, however, according to GOST of the Unified System of Design Documentation, this letter is the pitch (of helical springs, rivet joints, etc.). However, it is not used when it comes to gears and threads.

The capital and lowercase letter “A”/“a” (according to the same standards) in the drawings is used to denote not the area, but the center-to-center and center-to-center distance. In addition to different sizes, in drawings it is often necessary to indicate angles of different sizes. For this purpose, it is customary to use lowercase letters of the Greek alphabet. The most commonly used ones are “α”, “β”, “γ” and “δ”. However, it is acceptable to use others.

Perimeter and area

Cabinet filling options

The filling of the bedroom closet directly depends on the preferences of the apartment owner. This also applies to the design of the facade. Today there is a wide range of furniture available, not to mention custom-made designs. The internal content directly depends on the design features of the product. Details are selected to ensure convenient use of this interior element.

With two doors

This model is the most popular option for use in the bedroom and dressing room. It is very convenient and easy to use. The interior space is divided into two sections, which are connected at the top by a mezzanine. Options for organizing useful volume:

In the first section, a hanger bar is installed. If desired, furniture can be equipped with roll-out baskets for storing knitwear or shoes. On the other side, shelves and drawers are installed.
In the second option, the first compartment in the lower part is equipped with a shelf, which is used to store various things and objects. The rest of the space is organized according to the previous scheme.
If short items are stored on the hanger, the section can be divided into two compartments by a horizontal shelf. It is also possible to install shelves below the bar.

There are quite a lot of variations in the organization of internal space. When choosing, you should consider your needs and preferences. For the fair sex, the ideal option would be to install drawers with divisions for storing various small items and cosmetics.

wardrobe with two doors

With three doors

Unlike the previous option, this option has three compartments, which significantly increases its functionality. You can distribute the internal space in several ways:

The first compartment contains a rod and several shelves or drawers below. The second part is equipped with shelves and drawers. As for the third compartment, it can be divided by a horizontal shelf. This will allow you to organize a place to store bulky items and items.
The first compartment consists of two rods, which are located one above the other. The second is a bar with one or more shelves underneath it. In the third compartment, shelves or drawers are installed. If you wish, you can get by with one element, or create an original combination.
In the third case, all sections are divided by horizontal shelves. The upper halves contain drawers, shelves and a hanging rod. The lower compartments are ideal for storing bulky items.

The arrangement of internal parts can be varied. The main thing is that the furniture is functional, and the filling of the wardrobes is convenient to use.

wardrobe with three doors

Corner design

Installing corner furniture allows you to make the most of the space in the room. A product of this configuration has its own design features. If you organize the internal space correctly, the capacity will be an order of magnitude higher than standard models. This is especially true for the use of corner dead zones. The layout might look something like this:

Clothes hangers are installed in the middle. On the sides there are shelves and drawers. If desired, the outer side of the side walls can be equipped with original shaped shelves for storing various decorative items.
On one side, long, deep shelves are made. On the other side there are two compartments with shelves. Below there is space left for heavy and bulky items.
In the middle, rods with hangers are installed one above the other. There are shelves and drawers on the sides.

In the case of corner furniture, the main thing is to properly organize the arrangement of the wardrobe. This will allow you to use it as efficiently as possible for storing various things and items.

Corner wardrobe

Radius cabinet

The peculiarity of such furniture lies in the original curved doors. This is taken into account when making shelves. They must match the shape of the doors. The structure itself can be concave, convex or wavy.

Despite their appearance, quite large items can be hidden behind the doors. Some models are equipped with pull-out cabinets and dressing tables with a mirror. Therefore, tonis not only look original, but are also very roomy.

Radius wardrobe

Built-in wardrobe

The peculiarity is that the space from floor to ceiling is used at the discretion of the household. In a niche you can install not only shelves and hangers for storing various things. Modular inserts are very popular. So, in the built-in closet you can organize space for a computer or TV. In this case, there are a lot of options. Therefore, you will need to think seriously about organizing the internal space.

Other common abbreviations

Radius and diameter

In addition to the parameters discussed, when drawing up drawings you have to deal with others.

Although this is a common abbreviation, it is worth keeping in mind that GOST provides for the use of only the Latin “D” / “d”.